NFL · Empirical Bayes

True-Talent Leaderboards

A raw single-season rate is a noisy guess at a player’s real ability, and the noise is worst for the smallest samples — so a naïve leaderboard is topped by whoever got lucky in the fewest tries. This one shrinks every rate toward its position-group prior by how much the sample can be trusted, and shows a 90% credible interval instead of a point. Toggle raw vs. shrunk to watch the flukes fall back to the pack.

Target success rate · 2020

Share of targets with positive EPA, shrunk within position.

Beats raw by
21.9%
lower out-of-sample error
RMSE raw → shrunk
11.7% → 9.1%
odd vs. even weeks
Split-half reliability
0.19
how repeatable the raw stat is
Stabilizes at
117 TE · 133 WR
targets to trust the number
shrunkrawthe shrink90% CI
40%45%50%55%60%65%TE avgWR avg1Stefon DiggsBUF · 16660.3%2Travis KelceKC · 14660.0%3Tyler LockettSEA · 13259.8%4Davante AdamsGB · 14959.4%5Chris Godwin Jr.TB · 8458.7%6Adam ThielenMIN · 11058.6%7Rashard HigginsCLE · 5258.6%8Darren WallerLV · 14658.5%9Robert TonyanGB · 5958.4%10Durham SmytheMIA · 2958.1%11Julio JonesATL · 6857.9%12George KittleSF · 6457.9%13Cole BeasleyBUF · 10857.8%14Darren FellsHOU · 2857.8%15Jordan AkinsHOU · 4957.7%16Cameron BrateTB · 3457.5%17Will FullerHOU · 7557.4%18Dan ArnoldARI · 4557.3%19Sammy WatkinsKC · 5557.1%20Corey DavisTEN · 9257.0%21Jarvis LandryCLE · 10157.0%22Pharaoh BrownHOU · 1657.0%23Adam TrautmanNO · 1657.0%24Emmanuel SandersNO · 8256.9%25Brandin CooksHOU · 11956.9%26Richard RodgersPHI · 3256.9%27Justin JeffersonMIN · 12856.8%28JuJu Smith-Schust…PIT · 12956.6%29Allen LazardGB · 4656.6%30Kyle RudolphMIN · 3856.6%31Ross DwelleySF · 2456.6%32Tyler KroftBUF · 1656.2%33Donovan Peoples-J…CLE · 2156.1%34Mohamed SanuDET · 2555.9%35Isaiah McKenzieBUF · 3455.9%36Albert OkwuegbunamDEN · 1555.9%37Marquez CallawayNO · 2755.9%38Cameron BatsonTEN · 1355.7%39Geoff SwaimTEN · 1255.6%40Byron PringleKC · 1755.6%41Bryan EdwardsLV · 1555.0%42KhaDarel HodgeCLE · 1754.9%

Each row is a player: the solid dot is the shrunk estimate, the hollow dot the raw rate, joined by the red pull of regression; the grey bar is the 90% credible interval. A hollow shrunk dot means the sample is below the stabilization line — the number is mostly the position prior. Switch to Raw rank and watch the small-sample names climb.

Target success rate · 2020 · full board

Target success rate leaderboard for the 2020 NFL season, shrunk by empirical Bayes with 90% credible intervals, ranked by the shrunk estimate.
#PlayerTeamPostargetsRawShrunk90% interval
1Stefon DiggsBUFWR16665.7%60.3%55.6%64.9%
2Travis KelceKCTE14664.4%60.0%55.0%64.9%
3Tyler Lockett◦ provisionalSEAWR13265.9%59.8%54.8%64.7%
4Davante AdamsGBWR14964.4%59.4%54.5%64.1%
5Chris Godwin Jr.◦ provisionalTBWR8466.7%58.7%53.2%64.1%
6Adam Thielen◦ provisionalMINWR11064.5%58.6%53.4%63.7%
7Rashard Higgins◦ provisionalCLEWR5271.2%58.6%52.6%64.5%
8Darren WallerLVTE14661.6%58.5%53.4%63.4%
9Robert Tonyan◦ provisionalGBTE5966.1%58.4%52.2%64.4%
10Durham Smythe◦ provisionalMIATE2972.4%58.1%51.3%64.7%
11Julio Jones◦ provisionalATLWR6866.2%57.9%52.1%63.6%
12George Kittle◦ provisionalSFTE6464.1%57.9%51.8%63.8%
13Cole Beasley◦ provisionalBUFWR10863.0%57.8%52.6%63.0%
14Darren Fells◦ provisionalHOUTE2871.4%57.8%51.0%64.4%
15Jordan Akins◦ provisionalHOUTE4965.3%57.7%51.3%63.9%
16Cameron Brate◦ provisionalTBTE3467.7%57.5%50.8%64.0%
17Will Fuller◦ provisionalHOUWR7564.0%57.4%51.7%63.0%
18Dan Arnold◦ provisionalARITE4564.4%57.3%50.8%63.6%
19Sammy Watkins◦ provisionalKCWR5565.5%57.1%51.1%63.0%
20Corey Davis◦ provisionalTENWR9262.0%57.0%51.6%62.4%
21Jarvis Landry◦ provisionalCLEWR10161.4%57.0%51.6%62.3%
22Pharaoh Brown◦ provisionalHOUTE1675.0%57.0%49.9%63.9%
23Adam Trautman◦ provisionalNOTE1675.0%57.0%49.9%63.9%
24Emmanuel Sanders◦ provisionalNOWR8262.2%56.9%51.3%62.4%
25Brandin Cooks◦ provisionalHOUWR11960.5%56.9%51.7%62.0%
26Richard Rodgers◦ provisionalPHITE3265.6%56.9%50.2%63.5%
27Justin Jefferson◦ provisionalMINWR12860.2%56.8%51.8%61.9%
28JuJu Smith-Schuster◦ provisionalPITWR12959.7%56.6%51.6%61.6%
29Allen Lazard◦ provisionalGBWR4665.2%56.6%50.5%62.7%
30Kyle Rudolph◦ provisionalMINTE3863.2%56.6%50.0%63.1%
31Tyler Higbee◦ provisionalLATE6160.7%56.6%50.5%62.7%
32Ross Dwelley◦ provisionalSFTE2466.7%56.6%49.7%63.4%
33Tyler Boyd◦ provisionalCINWR11060.0%56.5%51.3%61.7%
34Jack Doyle◦ provisionalINDTE3363.6%56.5%49.8%63.1%
35Jakobi Meyers◦ provisionalNEWR8261.0%56.5%50.9%62.0%
36James O'Shaughnessy◦ provisionalJAXTE3961.5%56.3%49.7%62.7%
37Mo Alie-Cox◦ provisionalINDTE3961.5%56.3%49.7%62.7%
38A.J. Brown◦ provisionalTENWR10659.4%56.2%50.9%61.5%
39Tyler Kroft◦ provisionalBUFTE1668.8%56.2%49.1%63.2%
40Donovan Peoples-Jones◦ provisionalCLEWR2171.4%56.1%49.5%62.6%
41Amari Cooper◦ provisionalDALWR13058.5%56.0%51.0%61.0%
42Kendrick Bourne◦ provisionalSFWR7560.0%55.9%50.3%61.6%
43Mohamed Sanu◦ provisionalDETWR2568.0%55.9%49.4%62.4%
44Isaiah McKenzie◦ provisionalBUFWR3464.7%55.9%49.6%62.2%
45Albert Okwuegbunam◦ provisionalDENTE1566.7%55.9%48.7%62.9%
46Marquez Callaway◦ provisionalNOWR2766.7%55.9%49.4%62.3%
47Cooper Kupp◦ provisionalLAWR12458.1%55.8%50.7%60.8%
48Tyler Conklin◦ provisionalMINTE2661.5%55.8%48.9%62.5%
49Anthony Firkser◦ provisionalTENTE5358.5%55.7%49.5%62.0%
50Cameron Batson◦ provisionalTENWR1376.9%55.7%48.9%62.4%
51Geoff Swaim◦ provisionalTENTE1266.7%55.6%48.4%62.7%
52Adam Humphries◦ provisionalTENWR3562.9%55.6%49.3%61.8%
53Byron Pringle◦ provisionalKCWR1770.6%55.6%48.9%62.2%
54DK Metcalf◦ provisionalSEAWR12957.4%55.5%50.4%60.5%
55Demarcus Robinson◦ provisionalKCWR5959.3%55.4%49.5%61.3%
56Keke Coutee◦ provisionalHOUWR4161.0%55.4%49.2%61.5%
57Tyreek HillKCWR13557.0%55.4%50.3%60.3%
58John Brown◦ provisionalBUFWR5259.6%55.3%49.3%61.3%
59Deonte Harty◦ provisionalNOWR2564.0%55.3%48.8%61.7%
60DeAndre HopkinsARIWR16156.5%55.2%50.4%60.0%
61Dalton Schultz◦ provisionalDALTE8956.2%55.2%49.5%60.9%
62Irv Smith◦ provisionalMINTE4456.8%55.1%48.7%61.5%
63Blake Bell◦ provisionalDALTE1560.0%55.1%48.0%62.2%
64Hunter Henry◦ provisionalLACTE9355.9%55.1%49.5%60.7%
65Antonio Brown◦ provisionalTBWR6258.1%55.1%49.2%60.9%
66Allen RobinsonCHIWR15156.3%55.1%50.2%59.9%
67Jonnu Smith◦ provisionalTENTE6656.1%55.1%49.0%61.1%
68Nick Boyle◦ provisionalBALTE1758.8%55.0%47.9%62.1%
69Michael Thomas◦ provisionalNOWR5558.2%55.0%49.0%60.9%
70Bryan Edwards◦ provisionalLVWR1566.7%55.0%48.2%61.6%
71Austin Hooper◦ provisionalCLETE7055.7%54.9%48.9%60.9%
72Curtis Samuel◦ provisionalCARWR9756.7%54.9%49.5%60.3%
73Tyron Johnson◦ provisionalLACWR2661.5%54.9%48.4%61.4%
74KhaDarel Hodge◦ provisionalCLEWR1764.7%54.9%48.2%61.5%
75Willie Snead◦ provisionalBALWR4858.3%54.9%48.8%60.9%
76Kaden Smith◦ provisionalNYGTE2157.1%54.9%47.9%61.8%
77Darrell Daniels◦ provisionalARITE1258.3%54.9%47.6%62.0%
78Randall Cobb◦ provisionalHOUWR5058.0%54.8%48.8%60.9%
79Sterling Shepard◦ provisionalNYGWR9256.5%54.8%49.4%60.3%
80Dallas Goedert◦ provisionalPHITE6555.4%54.8%48.7%60.8%
81Jared Cook◦ provisionalNOTE6055.0%54.7%48.5%60.8%
82David Njoku◦ provisionalCLETE2955.2%54.6%47.8%61.4%
83Will Dissly◦ provisionalSEATE2955.2%54.6%47.8%61.4%
84Drew Sample◦ provisionalCINTE5354.7%54.6%48.3%60.8%
85Mark Andrews◦ provisionalBALTE8854.5%54.5%48.8%60.2%
86Tee Higgins◦ provisionalCINWR10855.6%54.5%49.2%59.8%
87Bisi Johnson◦ provisionalMINWR2060.0%54.5%47.9%61.1%
88Hunter Renfrow◦ provisionalLVWR7755.8%54.5%48.8%60.1%
89Chris Herndon◦ provisionalNYJTE4654.4%54.4%48.0%60.8%
90Calvin RidleyATLWR14555.2%54.4%49.5%59.3%
91Isaiah Ford◦ provisionalMIAWR4456.8%54.4%48.3%60.6%
92Greg Olsen◦ provisionalSEATE3754.0%54.4%47.8%60.9%
93Troy Fumagalli◦ provisionalDENTE1553.3%54.4%47.2%61.4%
94Jason Witten◦ provisionalLVTE1752.9%54.3%47.2%61.3%
95Chris Conley◦ provisionalJAXWR6355.6%54.3%48.4%60.1%
96Mecole Hardman◦ provisionalKCWR6355.6%54.3%48.4%60.1%
97Mike Evans◦ provisionalTBWR11154.9%54.3%49.0%59.5%
98Alex Erickson◦ provisionalCINWR1758.8%54.2%47.5%60.9%
99O.J. Howard◦ provisionalTBTE1952.6%54.2%47.2%61.2%
100DeVante Parker◦ provisionalMIAWR10454.8%54.2%48.8%59.5%
101Marvin Hall◦ provisionalCLEWR3256.3%54.2%47.8%60.5%
102Olamide Zaccheaus◦ provisionalATLWR3256.3%54.2%47.8%60.5%
103David Moore◦ provisionalSEAWR4755.3%54.1%48.0%60.2%
104Quintez Cephus◦ provisionalDETWR3655.6%54.1%47.7%60.3%
105Marvin Jones◦ provisionalDETWR11654.3%54.0%48.8%59.1%
106C.J. Board◦ provisionalNYGWR1656.3%53.9%47.2%60.6%
107DJ Moore◦ provisionalCARWR11854.2%53.9%48.7%59.1%
108Russell Gage◦ provisionalATLWR10954.1%53.9%48.6%59.1%
109Ryan Izzo◦ provisionalNETE2050.0%53.8%46.8%60.8%
110Donald Parham◦ provisionalLACTE2050.0%53.8%46.8%60.8%
111T.J. Hockenson◦ provisionalDETTE10252.9%53.8%48.2%59.3%
112Tre'Quan Smith◦ provisionalNOWR5054.0%53.8%47.7%59.8%
113Mack Hollins◦ provisionalMIAWR2653.8%53.7%47.2%60.2%
114Travis Fulgham◦ provisionalPHIWR6753.7%53.7%47.9%59.5%
115Jakeem Grant◦ provisionalMIAWR5453.7%53.7%47.7%59.6%
116Equanimeous St. Brown◦ provisionalGBWR1353.8%53.7%46.9%60.4%
117Nelson Agholor◦ provisionalLVWR8253.7%53.7%48.0%59.2%
118Danny Amendola◦ provisionalDETWR6953.6%53.6%47.9%59.4%
119Jacob Hollister◦ provisionalSEATE4151.2%53.6%47.1%60.1%
120Cedrick Wilson Jr.◦ provisionalDALWR2853.6%53.6%47.2%60.1%
121Kalif Raymond◦ provisionalTENWR1553.3%53.6%46.9%60.3%
122Jace Sternberger◦ provisionalGBTE1546.7%53.6%46.5%60.7%
123Tyler Johnson◦ provisionalTBWR1752.9%53.6%46.9%60.2%
124Marcedes Lewis◦ provisionalGBTE1747.1%53.5%46.5%60.6%
125Kenny Golladay◦ provisionalDETWR3253.1%53.5%47.2%59.9%
126Cole Kmet◦ provisionalCHITE4551.1%53.5%47.1%60.0%
127Trey Burton◦ provisionalINDTE4751.1%53.5%47.1%59.9%
128Damiere Byrd◦ provisionalNEWR7753.3%53.5%47.8%59.1%
129T.Y. Hilton◦ provisionalINDWR9453.2%53.5%48.0%58.9%
130KeeSean Johnson◦ provisionalARIWR2352.2%53.4%46.9%60.0%
131Brandon Aiyuk◦ provisionalSFWR9653.1%53.4%48.0%58.8%
132Noah Brown◦ provisionalDALWR2552.0%53.4%46.9%59.9%
133Chad Hansen◦ provisionalHOUWR2552.0%53.4%46.9%59.9%
134Braxton Berrios◦ provisionalNYJWR5552.7%53.4%47.4%59.3%
135Mike Gesicki◦ provisionalMIATE8551.8%53.3%47.6%59.1%
136Ryan Griffin◦ provisionalNYJTE1241.7%53.3%46.1%60.5%
137Michael Pittman◦ provisionalINDWR6152.5%53.3%47.4%59.1%
138Van Jefferson◦ provisionalLAWR3151.6%53.3%46.9%59.6%
139Miles Boykin◦ provisionalBALWR3351.5%53.2%46.9%59.6%
140Collin Johnson◦ provisionalJAXWR3351.5%53.2%46.9%59.6%
141Tim Patrick◦ provisionalDENWR8052.5%53.2%47.6%58.8%
142Zay Jones◦ provisionalLVWR2050.0%53.2%46.5%59.8%
143Julian Edelman◦ provisionalNEWR3951.3%53.1%46.9%59.3%
144Nick Vannett◦ provisionalDENTE2245.5%53.1%46.1%60.0%
145Gabe Davis◦ provisionalBUFWR6251.6%53.0%47.1%58.9%
146Laviska Shenault Jr.◦ provisionalJAXWR7951.9%53.0%47.4%58.6%
147Alshon Jeffery◦ provisionalPHIWR1346.2%53.0%46.2%59.7%
148Chad Beebe◦ provisionalMINWR3050.0%53.0%46.6%59.4%
149Tyler Eifert◦ provisionalJAXTE6050.0%53.0%46.8%59.1%
150Josh Reynolds◦ provisionalLAWR8151.8%53.0%47.4%58.6%
151Keenan AllenLACWR14952.3%53.0%48.1%57.8%
152Kenny Stills◦ provisionalHOUWR1947.4%52.9%46.2%59.5%
153Keelan Cole◦ provisionalJAXWR8951.7%52.9%47.3%58.4%
154Mike Thomas◦ provisionalCINWR2147.6%52.8%46.2%59.4%
155Harrison Bryant◦ provisionalCLETE3847.4%52.8%46.2%59.3%
156Jimmy Graham◦ provisionalCHITE7650.0%52.7%46.8%58.6%
157Dontrelle Inman◦ provisionalWASWR2948.3%52.7%46.2%59.1%
158Cam Sims◦ provisionalWASWR4850.0%52.7%46.6%58.8%
159Javon Wims◦ provisionalCHIWR1241.7%52.7%45.8%59.4%
160Richie James◦ provisionalSFWR3548.6%52.6%46.3%58.9%
161Isaiah Wright◦ provisionalWASWR3548.6%52.6%46.3%58.9%
162Steven Sims◦ provisionalWASWR3748.6%52.6%46.3%58.8%
163Auden Tate◦ provisionalCINWR2245.5%52.5%45.9%59.1%
164Noah Fant◦ provisionalDENTE9450.0%52.5%46.8%58.1%
165Demetrius Harris◦ provisionalCHITE1435.7%52.5%45.3%59.6%
166Mike Williams◦ provisionalLACWR8550.6%52.5%46.9%58.0%
167Rob Gronkowski◦ provisionalTBTE7749.4%52.4%46.6%58.3%
168DeSean Jackson◦ provisionalPHIWR2646.2%52.4%45.9%58.9%
169Devin Duvernay◦ provisionalBALWR2646.2%52.4%45.9%58.9%
170Gerald Everett◦ provisionalLATE6248.4%52.4%46.2%58.5%
171Larry Fitzgerald◦ provisionalARIWR7250.0%52.4%46.6%58.1%
172Zach Pascal◦ provisionalINDWR7250.0%52.4%46.6%58.1%
173Adam Shaheen◦ provisionalMIATE2240.9%52.3%45.4%59.3%
174Hayden Hurst◦ provisionalATLTE8949.4%52.3%46.6%58.0%
175Marquez Valdes-Scantling◦ provisionalGBWR6349.2%52.2%46.4%58.1%
176CeeDee Lamb◦ provisionalDALWR11150.4%52.2%46.9%57.4%
177Deebo Samuel Sr.◦ provisionalSFWR4447.7%52.2%46.0%58.3%
178Freddie Swain◦ provisionalSEAWR2142.9%52.2%45.6%58.8%
179N'Keal Harry◦ provisionalNETE5747.4%52.2%45.9%58.4%
180Taysom Hill◦ provisionalNOTE1330.8%52.1%44.9%59.3%
181Darius Slayton◦ provisionalNYGWR9650.0%52.1%46.7%57.5%
182Christian Kirk◦ provisionalARIWR7949.4%52.1%46.4%57.7%
183Dawson Knox◦ provisionalBUFTE4445.5%52.0%45.6%58.5%
184Terry McLaurinWASWR13550.4%52.0%47.0%57.0%
185Robbie ChosenCARWR13750.4%52.0%47.0%57.0%
186Preston Williams◦ provisionalMIAWR3746.0%52.0%45.7%58.3%
187Christian Blake◦ provisionalATLWR1838.9%51.9%45.2%58.6%
188Brandon Powell◦ provisionalATLWR1838.9%51.9%45.2%58.6%
189Denzel Mims◦ provisionalNYJWR4546.7%51.9%45.7%58.0%
190Ian Thomas◦ provisionalCARTE3141.9%51.9%45.1%58.6%
191Ray-Ray McCloud◦ provisionalPITWR2240.9%51.8%45.3%58.4%
192Michael Gallup◦ provisionalDALWR10549.5%51.8%46.5%57.1%
193Scott Miller◦ provisionalTBWR5347.2%51.8%45.8%57.8%
194Chris Hogan◦ provisionalNYJWR2642.3%51.8%45.3%58.3%
195Marcus Johnson◦ provisionalINDWR2842.9%51.8%45.3%58.2%
196Jesse James◦ provisionalDETTE2236.4%51.6%44.7%58.6%
197DaeSean Hamilton◦ provisionalDENWR4445.5%51.6%45.4%57.8%
198Quez Watkins◦ provisionalPHIWR1330.8%51.6%44.8%58.4%
199Jamison Crowder◦ provisionalNYJWR8948.3%51.5%46.0%57.0%
200Darnell Mooney◦ provisionalCHIWR9948.5%51.4%46.1%56.8%
201Lynn Bowden◦ provisionalMIAWR3743.2%51.4%45.1%57.7%
202Odell Beckham Jr.◦ provisionalCLEWR4344.2%51.3%45.1%57.5%
203Henry Ruggs III◦ provisionalLVWR4344.2%51.3%45.1%57.5%
204Jalen Reagor◦ provisionalPHIWR5545.5%51.3%45.3%57.2%
205Jamal Agnew◦ provisionalDETWR2035.0%51.2%44.6%57.8%
206Logan Thomas◦ provisionalWASTE11147.8%51.2%45.8%56.6%
207Golden Tate◦ provisionalNYGWR5244.2%51.0%45.0%57.0%
208James Washington◦ provisionalPITWR5644.6%51.0%45.0%57.0%
209Vance McDonald◦ provisionalPITTE2030.0%50.9%43.9%57.9%
210Trent Taylor◦ provisionalSFWR2133.3%50.9%44.3%57.5%
211Greg Ward◦ provisionalPHIWR8046.3%50.9%45.3%56.5%
212Jordan Reed◦ provisionalSFTE4641.3%50.8%44.3%57.2%
213Eric Ebron◦ provisionalPITTE9245.6%50.6%44.9%56.3%
214John Hightower◦ provisionalPHIWR3036.7%50.5%44.1%57.0%
215Robert Woods◦ provisionalLAWR12947.3%50.5%45.5%55.6%
216Anthony Miller◦ provisionalCHIWR7644.7%50.4%44.7%56.1%
217DJ Chark◦ provisionalJAXWR9445.7%50.4%44.9%55.8%
218Marquise Brown◦ provisionalBALWR10046.0%50.4%45.0%55.8%
219Chase Claypool◦ provisionalPITWR11245.5%49.9%44.7%55.2%
220Jalen Guyton◦ provisionalLACWR5540.0%49.7%43.7%55.6%
221Diontae JohnsonPITWR14445.8%49.6%44.7%54.5%
222Breshad Perriman◦ provisionalNYJWR6040.0%49.4%43.5%55.3%
223Jeff Smith◦ provisionalNYJWR3732.4%49.0%42.8%55.3%
224Andy Isabella◦ provisionalARIWR3531.4%49.0%42.7%55.4%
225KJ Hamler◦ provisionalDENWR5635.7%48.3%42.4%54.3%
226A.J. Green◦ provisionalCINWR10439.4%47.4%42.1%52.8%
227Zach Ertz◦ provisionalPHITE7335.6%47.2%41.3%53.2%
228Evan Engram◦ provisionalNYGTE10939.5%47.2%41.8%52.7%
229Jerry Jeudy◦ provisionalDENWR11537.4%46.1%40.9%51.3%

How the shrinkage works

Two estimators

Rate stats (completion %, success rate, catch rate) use a beta-binomial model: a Beta(α, β) prior fit by marginal likelihood over each position group, then a Beta posterior per player. Per-play averages (EPA, CPOE, yards) use a normal-normal model with DerSimonian–Laird between-player variance. Both pull each player toward their group by exactly how thin their sample is.

Does it help? & the fine print

The trust panel’s numbers come from a leakage-free odd/even-week holdout: fit on odd weeks, predict even-week raw. Shrinkage lowers out-of-sample error for every stat. Priors are fit per season and per position (WR and TE separately), so a TE’s baseline isn’t a skill. Regular season only, 2016–2025. Rushing and receiving efficiency are heavily scheme-driven — read the wide bands as the honesty they are.

Source: nflverse play-by-play. Counted and computed deterministically — never modeled by a language model. Built by build_nfl_leaderboards.py (byte-reproducible).